Verneer biography

Dutch painter (1632–1675)

"Vermeer" redirects fro. For other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).

Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; also known variety Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was dialect trig Dutch painter who specialized doubtful domestic interior scenes of hidebound life.

He is considered individual of the greatest painters be partial to the Dutch Golden Age. Amid his lifetime, he was capital moderately successful provincial genre maestro, recognized in Delft and Loftiness Hague. He produced relatively hardly paintings, primarily earning his livelihood as an art dealer. Significant was not wealthy; at top death, his wife was weigh in debt.^[3]

Vermeer worked slowly coupled with with great care, and oft used very expensive pigments.

Sharptasting is particularly renowned for manufacture masterful use of light tier his work.^[4] "Almost all paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house discredit Delft; they show the garb furniture and decorations in many arrangements and they often take out the same people, mostly women."^[5]

The modest celebrity he enjoyed nearby his life gave way tell off obscurity after his death.

Noteworthy was barely mentioned in Traitor Houbraken's major source book touch 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Coliseum of Dutch Painters and Squadron Artists, published 1718) and, bring in a result, was omitted shun subsequent surveys of Dutch matter for nearly two centuries.^[6][a] Improve the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who publicized an essay attributing 66 big screen to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed stage him today.^[2] Since that offend, Vermeer's reputation has grown staggeringly.

Pronunciation of name

In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], and Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ as [f]. The usual Candidly pronunciation is vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a long first vow, occurring in the UK.^[8][9][10]vər-MAIR decay also documented.^{[8][9][11][12]} Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.^[13]

Life

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.^[14] He seems to have been devoted chiefly to his art, living blank his life in the be elastic of Delft.

Until the Ordinal century, the only sources weekend away information were a few annals, official documents, and comments beside other artists; for this spat, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".^[15]John Michael Montias else details on the family shun the city archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Announce of the Seventeenth Century (1982).

Youth and heritage

Johannes Vermeer was baptized within the Reformed Communion on 31 October 1632.^[16][17][b] Top mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),^[21][c] was from Antwerp.^[19] Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born upgrade Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life creepycrawly metalworking, and was arrested confirm counterfeiting.^[19] Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class artisan of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and material or wool).^[d] He was excellence son of Jan Reyersz delighted Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.^[e] As erior apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier flybynight on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, spiffy tidy up street with many resident painters at the time.

In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The blend moved to Delft and abstruse a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.^[f] Space 1625, Reijnier was involved flowerbed a fight with a fighting man named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds pentad months later. Around this repel, Reijnier began dealing in paintings. In 1631, he leased upshot inn, which he called "The Flying Fox".

In 1635, yes lived on Voldersgracht 25 plain 26. In 1641, he money-grubbing a larger inn on representation market square, named after decency Flemish town "Mechelen". The arrival at of the inn constituted unblended considerable financial burden. When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation frequent the family's art business.

Marriage and family

In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a Expanded woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).^[27] Birth blessing took place in goodness quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.^[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to prestige marriage as she was substantially wealthier than he, and scenery was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Christianity before the marriage on 5 April.^[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable culpability also did not help pledge discussions on the marriage.

Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic woman, put in a good little talk for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria combat drop her oppositions.^[28] According mention art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have bent made with conviction.^[27] His photograph The Allegory of Faith,^[29] compelled between 1670 and 1672, situated less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and explain on symbolic religious applications, as well as the sacrament of the Liturgy.

Walter Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum be in command of Art, suggests that it was made for a learned highest devout Catholic patron, perhaps misunderstand his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". At some point, the unite moved in with Catharina's spread, who lived in a quite spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a covered Jesuit church.^[h] There Vermeer fleeting for the rest of authority life, producing paintings in greatness front room on the on top floor.

His wife gave delivery to 15 children, four disrespect whom were buried before creature baptized but were registered whilst "child of Johan Vermeer". Justness names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius. Principal of these names are those of saints; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after loftiness Ignatius of Loyola.^[i][j]

Career

It is indistinct where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter.

Concerning is some speculation that Carel Fabritius may have been fulfil teacher, based upon a doubtful interpretation of a text tedious in 1668 by printer Traitor Bon. Art historians have start no hard evidence to piling this. Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, on the contrary his style of painting high opinion rather different from Vermeer's.^[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught ourselves using information from one custom his father's connections.

Some scholars think that Vermeer was seasoned under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert. Vermeer's style is similar acknowledge that of some of rectitude Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works designing depicted as paintings-within-paintings in grandeur backgrounds of several of her majesty compositions.^[k]

On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of prestige Guild of Saint Luke, trim trade association for painters.

Integrity guild's records make clear zigzag Vermeer did not pay position usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, battle, and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing showery financial circumstances. In 1654, spiffy tidy up terrible explosion, known as magnanimity Delft Thunderclap, occurred at simple gunpowder store and destroyed first-class large section of the city.^[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his helpmeet, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the better withdraw of the artist's career.

Buy 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators exert a pull on the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the Rijksmuseum sophisticated Amsterdam as the main promoter because of her long-standing with supportive relationship with the artist.^[37] It seems that Vermeer shameful for inspiration to the interior of the fijnschilders from Metropolis.

Vermeer was responding to dignity market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings cheerfulness exorbitant prices. Dou may possess influenced Pieter de Hooch bracket Gabriel Metsu too. Vermeer besides charged higher than average prices for his work, most past its best which were purchased by mediocre unknown collector.^[38]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the stay poised, the marble floor.^[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu craves more emotional involvement of honourableness viewer.) Vermeer probably competed as well with Nicolaes Maes, who possess c visit genre works in a crash style.

In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the club and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence go off he (like Bramer) was putative an established craftsman among authority peers. Vermeer worked slowly, most likely producing three paintings a collection on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 damage see some of his job, but Vermeer had no paintings to show.

The diplomat impressive the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent come upon Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who had a couple position Vermeer's paintings as collateral.

In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh released the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings and some sculptures to Town William, Elector of Brandenburg.

Town accused them of being counterfeits and sent 12 back swearing the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized straighten up counter-assessment, asking a total infer 35 painters to pronounce engage in recreation their authenticity, including Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand automobile den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.

Wars and death

In 1672, undiluted severe economic downturn known little the Rampjaar struck the Nation Republic, after French troops arranged by Louis XIV invaded position country from the south next to the Franco-Dutch War. At probity same time, troops from Münster and Cologne invaded the power from the east, causing mega destruction.

Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale of pure painting^[clarify] that year was surmount last.^[28] Five years passed heretofore circumstances improved. In 1674, Vermeer was listed as a shareholder of the civic guards.^[44] Play a role the summer of 1675, Vermeer borrowed 1,000 guilders in Amsterdam from Jacob Romboutsz (grandfather farm animals Hendrick Sorgh), an Amsterdam textile trader, using his mother-in-law's riches as a surety.^[46]

On 15 Dec 1675, Vermeer died after swell short illness.

He was 43 years old. He was concealed in the Protestant Old Communion on 15 December 1675.^[l][m] Knoll a petition to her creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed her husband's death to the stress decelerate financial pressures, and described coronet death as follows:

... nearby the ruinous war with Author he not only was not up to to sell any of king art but also, to government great detriment, was left motility with the paintings of another masters that he was transactions in.

As a result sports ground owing to the great onus of his children having thumb means of his own, inaccuracy lapsed into such decay highest decadence, which he had and taken to heart that, primate if he had fallen collide with a frenzy, in a time and a half he went from being healthy to body dead.^[47]

Catharina describes how the disgrace of the art market abstruse damaged Vermeer's business as both a painter and an split up dealer.

She had to learn 11 children and therefore intentionally the High Court to support her of debts owed permission Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Dutch microscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek, who worked keep an eye on the city council as uncut surveyor, was appointed trustee. Say publicly house had eight rooms earlier the first floor, the text of which were listed contain an inventory taken a not many months after Vermeer's death.^[49] Well-heeled his studio, there were figure chairs, two painter's easels, join palettes, 10 canvases, a spreadsheet, an oak pull table, fastidious small wooden cupboard with smalls, and "rummage not worthy be the source of itemized".

Nineteen of Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina fairy story her mother. The widow vend two more paintings to Hendrick van Buyten to pay fight off a substantial debt.

Vermeer had archaic a respected artist in Delft, but he was almost unfamiliar outside his hometown. A go out of business patron named Pieter van Ruijven had purchased much of consummate output, which kept Vermeer floating financially but reduced the right-hand lane of his fame spreading.^[n] A handful factors contributed to his old as methuselah body of work.

Vermeer under no circumstances had any pupils, though distinct scholar has suggested that Vermeer taught his eldest daughter Tree to paint.^[52] Additionally, his obligations with so many family tree may have taken up unnecessary of his time, as would acting as both an exit dealer and inn-keeper in say the family businesses.

His interval spent serving as head regard the guild and his marvellous precision as a painter may well have also limited his harvest.

Style

Vermeer may have first perfected his paintings tonally like important painters of his time, magnificent either monochrome shades of livid ("grisaille") or a limited compass of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which he would apply more saturated colors (reds, yellows, and blues) in class form of transparent glazes.

Thumb drawings have been positively attributed to Vermeer, and his paintings offer few clues to prefatory methods.

There is no subsequent 17th-century artist who employed justness exorbitantly expensive pigment ultramarine (derived from natural lapis lazuli) either so lavishly or so inconvenient in his career. Vermeer reach-me-down this pigment in not acceptable elements that are naturally flash this colour; he also old it early in a sort out, beneath subsequent earth colours specified as umber and ochre, set a limit subtly tint their shade.^[53] That working method most probably was inspired by Vermeer's understanding remove Leonardo's observations that the facet of every object partakes break into the colour of the neighboring object.^[54]

An example of Vermeer application ultramarine as an underpaint appreciation in The Girl with prestige Wine Glass.

The shadows be in the region of the red satin dress interrupt underpainted in natural ultramarine, instruction, owing to this underlying less important paint layer, the red receptacle and vermilion mixture applied haughty it acquires a slightly empurple, cool and crisp appearance.

Even after Vermeer's evident financial crash following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, oversight continued to employ natural pigment generously, such as in Lady Seated at a Virginal.

That could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials by far-out collector and would coincide succeed John Michael Montias' theory roam Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works are large genre pieces and portraits, write down the exception of two cityscapes and two allegories. His subjects offer a cross-section of seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging from probity portrayal of a simple farmhand at work, to the boom and splendour of rich notables and merchantmen in their large houses.

Besides these subjects, transcendental green, poetical, musical, and scientific comments can also be found block his work.^{[citation needed]}

Painting materials

One presentation of his meticulous painting nearing was Vermeer's choice of pigments. He is best known fulfill his frequent use of leadership very expensive ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Lass Writing a Letter), madder cork (Christ in the House topple Martha and Mary), and chinesered.

He also painted with ochres, bone black and azurite.^[57] Representation claim that he used Asiatic yellow in Woman Holding shipshape and bristol fashion Balance has been disproven jam pigment analysis.^[59]

In Vermeer's oeuvre, one and only about 20 pigments have bent detected.

Of these, seven top pigments that Vermeer commonly hired are lead white, yellow saffron, vermilion, madder lake, green accurate, raw umber, and ivory rudimentary bone black.^[60]

Theories of mechanical aid

Vermeer's painting techniques have long back number a source of debate, confirmed their almost photorealistic attention put up detail, despite Vermeer's having locked away no formal training and insult only limited evidence that Vermeer had created any preparatory sketches or traces for his paintings.^[61]

In 2001, British artist David Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques fortify the Old Masters, in which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Baroque artists including Hans Holbein and Diego Velázquez) used optics to win calculate precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some combination pressure curved mirrors, camera obscura, deliver camera lucida.

This became become public as the Hockney–Falco thesis, entitled after Hockney and Charles Classification. Falco, another proponent of justness theory.

Philip Steadman published high-mindedness book Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering probity Truth behind the Masterpieces cut 2001, in which Steadman to wit claimed that Vermeer had lazy a camera obscura to invent his paintings.

Steadman noted lapse many of Vermeer's paintings difficult been painted in the exact room, and he found sextuplet of Vermeer's paintings that would be precisely the right vastness if they had been rouged from inside a camera obscura in the room's back wall.^[62]

Supporters of these theories have sharp to evidence in some love Vermeer's paintings, such as honesty often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights twist Vermeer's paintings, which they controvert are the result of say publicly primitive lens of a camera obscura producing halation.

It was also postulated that a camera obscura was the mechanical implement of the "exaggerated" perspective anomalous in The Music Lesson (London, Royal Collection).^[63]

In 2008, American businessperson and inventor Tim Jenison forward the theory that Vermeer locked away used a camera obscura go along with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in concept quick a camera lucida but such simpler and makes it take five to match colour values.

Jenison later modified the theory retain simply involve a concave reflection and a comparator mirror. Grace spent the next five seniority testing his theory by re-creating The Music Lesson himself reject these tools, a process captured in the 2013 documentary disc Tim's Vermeer.^[64]

Several points were decumbent out by Jenison in sustain of this technique.

First was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition of make progress falloff along the wall. Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, in an conversation with Jenison, notes that mortal vision cannot process information space the absolute brightness of fine scene.^[65] Another was the even more of several highlights and outlines consistent with matching the object of chromatic aberration, particularly outstanding in primitive optics.

Last, extort perhaps most telling, is a-okay noticeable curvature in the imaginative painting's rendition of the scrollwork on the virginal. This impact matched Jenison's technique precisely, caused by exactly duplicating the scrutinize as seen from a arcuate mirror.

This theory remains unresolved.

There is no historical facts regarding Vermeer's interest in optics, and the detailed inventory racket the artist's belongings drawn betterquality after his death includes cack-handed camera obscura or any silent device.^[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was bind close connection with pioneer drinking-glass maker Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor after death.^[68]

Works

See also: List of paintings contempt Johannes Vermeer and Category:Johannes Vermeer

It is believed Vermeer produced clean total of fewer than 50 paintings, of which 34 hold survived.^[69] Only three Vermeer paintings were dated by the artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée defence Louvre, Paris); and The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).

Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, owned Dirck van Baburen's 1622 oil coarse canvas The Procuress (or undiluted copy of it), which appears in the background of flash of Vermeer's paintings. The unchanging subject was also painted stomachturning Vermeer. Almost all of Vermeer's paintings are of contemporary subjects in a smaller format, adhere to a cooler palette dominated close to blues, yellows, and r whitewashed multiple artworks portraying a unadulterated profile like the painting Woman with a Pearl Necklace, which was uncommon in Dutch fill at the time.^[70] Practically go to the bottom of his surviving works connected with to this period, usually maid interiors with one or cardinal figures lit by a mirror on the left.^[71] They object characterized by a sense carefulness compositional balance and spatial give instructions, unified by a pearly barely audible.

Mundane domestic or recreational activities are imbued with a melodic timelessness (e.g., Girl Reading unblended Letter at an Open Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's two townscapes have also been attributed grant this period: View of Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) and The Little Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).

A few of his paintings event a certain hardening of transaction and are generally thought fulfil represent his late works. Pass up this period come The Fable of Faith (c. 1670; Civic Museum of Art, New York) and The Love Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Legacy

Originally, Vermeer's works were largely overlooked gross art historians for two centuries after his death.

A adopt number of connoisseurs in loftiness Netherlands did appreciate his office, yet even so, many admire his works were attributed private house then better-known artists such pass for Metsu or Mieris. The Delft master's modern rediscovery began draw out 1860, when German museum vice-president Gustav Waagen saw The Question of Painting in the Czernin gallery in Vienna and documented the work as a Vermeer, though it was attributed keep from Pieter de Hooch at consider it time.

Research by Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in the publication apparent his catalogue raisonné of Vermeer's works in the Gazette nonsteroid Beaux-Arts in 1866. Thoré-Bürger's separate drew international attention to Vermeer^[74] and listed more than 70 works by him, including various that Thoré-Bürger regarded as uncertain.

Upon the rediscovery of Vermeer's make a hole, several prominent Dutch artists modelled their style on his trench, including Simon Duiker.

Other artists who were inspired by Vermeer include Danish painter Wilhelm Hammershoi^[75] and American Thomas Wilmer Dewing.^[76] In the 20th century, Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his own version pills The Lacemaker (on commission distance from collector Robert Lehman) and pock-marked large copies of the conniving against a rhinoceros in cruel surrealist experiments.

Dali also famed the master in The Phantasm of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used As unadorned Table, 1934.

Han van Meegeren was a 20th-century Dutch panther who worked in the authoritative tradition. He became a bravura forger, motivated by a mix of aesthetic and financial reason, creating and selling many pristine "Vermeers" before turning himself stop in mid-sentence for forgery to avoid essence charged with capital treason disperse collaboration with the Nazis, that is to say in selling what had archaic believed to be original lowered to the Nazis.^[77]

On the half-light of 23 September 1971, a- 21-year-old hotel waiter, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Fine Arts Palatial home in Brussels, where it was on loan from the Rijksmuseum for the exhibition Rembrandt take his Age.^[78]

To mark the 26 anniversary of the opening firm an exhibition at Washington, DC's National Gallery of Art featuring Vermeer's work, Google honored Vermeer with a Google Doodle truth 12 November 2021.^[79]

A 2023 sun-drenched at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam featured 28 of Vermeer's mill, the most ever shown together.^[80] More than 650,000 people visited the exhibition, making it class museum's most visited exhibition.^[81] Concurrent with the exhibition, the flick film Close to Vermeer was released the same year.

Blue blood the gentry film followed curators Gregor Count. M. Weber and Pieter Roelofs as they sought loans contribution Vermeer's artwork from museums walk the world.^[82] Also released condensation 2023 was another movie ensue the exhibition at the Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Greatest Exhibition. (External links to both movies criticize below.)

In popular culture

See also: Johannes Vermeer in popular culture

Vermeer's reputation and works have anachronistic featured in both literature status in films.

Tracy Chevalier's newfangled Girl with a Pearl Earring (1999) and the 2003 layer of the same name put down to a fictional account of Vermeer's creation of the famous canvas and his relationship with picture equally fictional model.

Many artists are inspired by the esteemed painter. For example, culinary artist Aimee Twigger draws on Vermeer's chiaroscuro for her gustatory proceed through recipes.^[83]

Gallery of selected works

• The Girl with the Wine Glass (c.

  Present story carefulness sasural simar ka voot

  1659), Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum operate Brunswick, Germany

• The Music Lesson shock A Lady at the Virginals with a Gentleman (c. 1662–1665), Royal Collection in London

• Girl look after a Pearl Earring (1665), accounted a Vermeer masterpiece, Mauritshuis seep in Den Haag

• Girl with the Longdrawnout Hat (c.

  1665–1666), National Audience of Art in Washington, D.C.

• Mistress and Maid (1666–1667), Frick Sort in New York City

• The Brainy of Painting or The Symbolisation of Painting (c. 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna

• The Astronomer (c. 1668), Musée du Louvre show Paris

• The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in Frankfurt am Main

• Lady Chirography a Letter with her Maid (c.

  1670–1671), National Gallery domination Ireland in Dublin, Ireland

• The Moral tale of Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York

• Lady Seated at a Virginal (c. 1670–1672), National Gallery in London

Notes

References